A critical evaluation on two theories of aggression

A critical evaluation on two theories of aggression Aggression is as a form of anti social behaviour, showing a lack of emotional concern for the welfare of others, as described by Baron and Richardson (1994). It is a cultural, cognitive process as well as a biological response, affecting every human being. Furthermore, it appears in many forms, verbal, physical, symbolic or injurious with the environment, personal beliefs and individuals society mediating its nature. In society, you will find some people more aggressive compared to others, with the levels varying when in different social situations. Some environments provoke aggression in people much more regularly, than others do. Yet such situations do not give rise to the same degree of aggressive behaviour in every person. There are two main social psychological theories that proposed to explain the nature and application of aggression, the Social Learning Theory and the Deindividuation Theory. The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modelling the behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. The theory suggests that for an individual to learn new behaviours this can only occur through direct experience. In the book, Social Learning Theory, Bandura (1977) states: Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action. Bandura argued that individuals, most likely children, learn aggressive responses from observing others in different social influences, i.e. role models in real life situations, their surroundings and the media. He also mentioned, individuals believing aggression produces reinforcements. Siegel (1992) who suggested that these reinforcements could be gaining financial rewards, a rise in self-esteem or receiving praise from other people supports this. Skinner (1953) proposed that learning occurs through reinforcement. Vicarious reinforcement occurs when an individual observes the consequences of aggressive behaviour as being rewarding, for example a person achieving what they want through aggressive behaviour. If a child is to see this happening in a school playground, whereby a bully gets their way for instance, the child may become to think of such behaviour as appropriate and therefore worth repeating. Bandura (1986) went on to suggest that for social learning to take place, the child had to form mental representations of certain events from their social environment to see possible rewards or punishments for the aggressive behaviour, alongside observational learning. The Bobo doll studies by Bandura, demonstrated how children learn and imitate aggressive behaviours they have witnessed in other people. The young participants observed an adult acting violently towards a Bobo doll and when the children received permission to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggression they had previously observed. Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning. The first model involves an actual individual demonstrating a particular behaviour. The second model includes descriptions and explanations of any certain behaviour. The third model involves real or fake role models acting out behaviours in books, films, TV programs or web media. Observational learning, also known as modelling consists of four phases, influenced by the observers behaviour (Bandura, 1977). The first is where the individual pays attention and perceives the most important aspects of the models behaviour by observation. Therefore, a child would need to attend to the role models actions or sayings (Allen Santrock, 1993). For example, children exposed to aggressive behaviour within the home and by watching the consequences, slowly associate such behaviour as effective conduct. Hence, children learn aggressive responses largely through observation. The second stage of observational learning is the coding of this behaviour into memory, also known as retention, for the information to be retrievable when an appropriate situation arises. This is where mental representations form, including events from the individuals social environment. The child must be able to distinguish possible rewards or punishments expected in future outcomes, which is vital in observational learning. In the Bobo doll experiment, the children aggressively beat the doll because this information was stored in their memory. The third process is rehearsing this acquired modelled behaviour, in conjunction with possessing the physical capabilities of the behaviour observed. If a child gains rewards i.e. appraisal, for their aggressive behaviour, they are more likely to repeat that same behaviour regularly. This is direct reinforcement and allows for the improvement of the behaviour. Moreover, individuals are more likely to repeat a modelled behaviour if the model is a role model or similar to them. Examples include parents or people of the same age group or race. Bandura (1976) proposed that members of the family were most influential in reinforcing aggressive behaviour in children, as they are likely to imitate them when they are older. The final stage involves the individual being motivated to successfully repeat and reinforce this modelled behaviour with the expectation of receiving rewards. Additionally, the individual will gradually gain confidence in their will to carry out aggressive behaviours, thu s self -efficacy expectancies are developed. The second theory of deindividuation, originates from Gustave Le Bons crowd theory (1895). In the book The Crowd, he describes how an individual within the crowd is psychologically altered. He state, Within the crowd, the collective mind of the group takes possession of the individual. As a result, a member of the crowd then becomes irrational. The individual submerged in the crowd loses self-control and becomes a mindless puppet, sometimes controlled by the crowds leader. Hence, they are capable of performing any impulsive and emotionally charged act, however undesirable or regressive to society. Festinger, Pepitone and Newcomb (1952) defined deindividuation as a state of affairs in a group where members do not pay attention to other individuals qua individuals and, correspondingly, the members do not feel they are being singled out by others. Festinger believed that when one becomes deindividuated, he or she merges their identity with that of the group and therefore becomes anonymo us. As a result of being unidentifiable in a large group, this has the psychological outcome of reducing individuals inner restraints, and increasing deviant behaviour that is normally avoided. The causes of deindividuation were extended from anonymity in groups to other factors, such as reduction in responsibility, arousal and altered consciousness influenced by drugs or alcohol (Zimbardo, 1969). In todays society especially, this is evident, as aggression seems to be the result of reduced inhibitions amongst individuals due to binge drinking, with excessive alcohol intake arousing aggressive acts such as fighting in a nightclub. Later versions of the theory focus on the psychological process of reduced private self-awareness as the key element of deindividuation, i.e. the individuals attitudes and norms (Prentice-Dunn and Rogers, 1982). In their study, they induced a sense of reduced self-awareness by continuously instructing participants to focus their attention outwards. Conditions for external attention cues included sitting in a dimly lit room with loud music playing, verbal interaction and stimulating video games to play, to increase deindividuation amongst the participants. In the controlled condition, participants were required to focus on internal attention, through no interaction and sitting in silence. The findings showed that when required to administer electric shocks to confederates, deindividuated participants that focused on external attention cues, produced higher aggressive behaviour by delivering shocks that were more painful, than the control group. This is because the experimental group w as made to ignore their own beliefs and self-identity, when their attention focussed on other aspects such as loud music and video games. In turn, this supports the idea that becoming less self aware, rather than just anonymity in a group, leads to deindividuation having the effect of producing aggression. Empirical support for the deindividuation theory is minimal. Zimbardo (1969) conducted a study to demonstrate the effects of deindividuation on aggression. Some of the female participants used wore oversized lab coats and hoods, and sat in a dimly lit room; increasing anonymity. In contrast, those in the control group wore normal clothes, nametags and were placed in a bright room, making them easily identifiable. The participants task was to shock a confederate and findings suggested that anonymous participants shocked longer and therefore more painfully than identifiable participants did. This gives support to the theory, as the study suggests that deindividuation or anonymity played a huge role, because when one is appearing as anonymous, they are likely to act in an aggressive approach than they would if their identity was easily available. Other research to support the deindividuation theory (Deiner et al., 1976) showed that American children who wore halloween costumes that hid their identities stole more sweets and money than those who wore costumes where they remained identifiable. The Stanford Prison Experiment by Haney et al. (1973) illustrated how college students assigned to act out the role of guards in a mock prison, behaved very aggressively in the cruelty they showed towards those assigned to the role of prisoners. This is largely due to the guards wearing mirrored glasses, thus rendering them anonymous, as their eyes were not visible to the prisoners. The brutality posed by the guards can be explained in terms of social norms. The guards only did what they thought was expected of them, although the state of deindividuation did cause them to ignore personal beliefs and perform the expected aggressive behaviour. This is one criticism of the study, as it did not show how real guards actually behave. Hence, the findings may have no real-life validity with the possibility of demand characteristics coming into play. In contrast, Bandura et al., (1961) were successful in showing that children learn aggressive behaviour through observation, which is reinforced by rewards and avoided by punishment (1962). A major strength of the Bobo doll studies is high control achieved by the use of laboratories, which produced sufficient applicable results. However, a problem with this is that the studies hold no ecological validity because of where and the manner in which they were carried out. In addition, it is possible to argue that the children also reacted aggressively to the Bobo doll as they were responding to demand characteristics. The children may have known what they had to do for the experiment. Another limitation is that the Bobo doll is fictional as was unable to fight back which a real person would have done; hence, this could also have influenced the childrens behaviour. Although the Bobo doll experiment shows that for an individual to express aggressive behaviours, observational learning has to take place, individuals may not always display such behaviour due to social constraints, or fear of receiving punishment. This means that even if an individual has learnt of an aggressive behaviour, he or she will not necessarily act it out, especially if perceived to be socially undesirable. Nonetheless, if the opportunity arises where they can demonstrate the behaviour without being punished for it, such as when they are deindividuated, then it is possible that they will behave aggressively. The social learning theory places great emphasis on individuals, especially children, imitating observed behaviour from watching others individually, the environment, and the mass media. However, the biological approach would argue that a persons state of biology is not taken into account within the Social Learning Theory. Moreover, it ignores individual genetic differences (Jeffery, 1985). For example, if an individual were to observe a brutal killing, they will respond differently when compared to someone else. Biological theorists would suggest that, heart rate and blood pressure would possibly rise, as a response made by the autonomic nervous system when in this particular circumstance. Hence, the response or behaviour acquired is genetically inherited to some extent. In addition, other research has shown increased aggressive behaviour to be associated with testosterone (Kalat, 1998). This hormone is higher in males, which may explain higher aggression in males than in females. There is still some doubt in establishing the effects of violent television on childrens aggression. Although, some studies have reported that there is no link between the two, and that aggression viewed on television is not always related to aggressive behaviour. For instance, one study had findings to suggest that juvenile boys, who regularly watched non-violent television shows, were more likely to express aggressive behaviour than those who witnessed the violent programs. This is because watching violent shows enabled the viewer to use the media as a way of relieving their own inner inhibitions or aggressive thoughts and ideas (Feshback Singer, 1971). As a result, the individual is less likely to be aggressive than if they had watched non-violent television. In addition to this, there is a theory that suggests; a way to reduce aggressive behaviour is by viewing violent television programs, known as the Catharsis effect (Gerbner.G, Gross.L, and Melody.W.H). As television is highl y influential, then positive and non-aggressive programs can aid in reducing aggression among viewers. Cooke (1993) believed that positive and kind-hearted television shows should encourage viewers to be more courteous to one another, if aggression in people is triggered by violent television. Therefore, the media can serve as a prevention method if individuals focus solely on the positive aspects, or use violent media to channel their own personal aggressive inhibitions. In comparison, one likely reason for the minimal support for the deindividuation concept is that the theory, which is based on Le Bons analysis of the crowd, is too simplified. According to Le Bon, collective behaviour is always irrational i.e. the individual in the crowd loses cognitive control. Researchers argue that deindividuation settings do not account for a loss of self-identity. Instead, they alter a person from an individual identity to a collective identity as a member of the group. Therefore, deindividuation leads to individuals conforming to the group norms. A meta-analysis of sixty studies on deindividuation conducted gave no results suggesting that deindividuation is the cause for increased anti-normative and disinhibited behaviour. Instead, individuals under anonymity complied more rather than less strongly with situational norms (Postmes and Spears, 1998). Overall, aggression is extremely difficult to define as well as investigate as not one theory can be used to explain it fully, even though it affects our every day-to-day life, either personally or through observation. The difficulty is when trying to measure and control this behaviour because it is quite impossible to reproduce aggression in a laboratory to bring about results and findings that fully apply to real life situations. However, these two theories by Bandura and Zimbardo have tried in their attempt to explain aggression. One advantage with the Social learning theory is that not only can it be applied to explaining childrens behaviour, adults too. Philips (1896) found that the daily rate of homicide in the US usually rose a week after a major boxing match. This suggests that the culprits may have been viewers imitating the aggressive behaviour they watched. Hence, social learning is evident in adults. In contrast, the deindividuation theory does not clearly state whether deindividuation occurs amongst young children as well. Instead, it focuses on mainly adults, which maybe another reason for the minimal empirical research to support the theory. Although the social learning theory was initially an explanation for aggression, it has recently been extended to explain other behaviours such as anorexia. Furthermore, the theory can explain differences between and within individuals, in terms of cultural v ariation, with one study showing the US to be highly violent compared to societies in Central Africa, which manage to live in harmony (Aronson, 1999). Differences within individuals are due to selective reinforcement; with people reacting differently as each individual will observe that aggression is rewarded in some cases and not others. Hence, people learn about behaviours differently along with the circumstances in which they are applicable, and so these differences should be a result of social learning. However, Banduras theory has its limitations because it does not suggest what leads people to aggress once they have witnessed aggressive behaviour. Thus, it does not explain the possibility of acting out a modelled behaviour for example, if an individual has been angered. Nevertheless, Dollard et al. (1939) who proposed the frustration -aggression theory, explored this. The theory suggests that frustration always leads to aggression and aggression is only a cause of frustration. When looking at the deindividuation theory, one study that both supports as well as criticises the theory, suggests that anonymity increases the possibility of an individual conforming to the social group norms. Participants were made anonymous by either wearing overalls and hoods similar to those of the racist Ku Klux Klan, or wearing nurses uniforms. Results showed that participants to deliver more shocks when dressed as the racist group, and fewer, as nurses (Johnson and Downing, 1979). Hence, this also showed that anonymity does not always lead to aggressive behaviour, instead individuals may simply be responding to the norms of the group and doing what is expected. One realistic approach to aggression is one that covers a number of explanations, from neuro-physiological and evolutionary ones to social-psychological theories. In conclusion, the social learning theory supported by extensive research compared to the deindividuation theory, has shown to conclusively illustrate that the acquisition and behavioural expression of aggression is socially influenced, and is therefore more successful in explaining this behaviour.

In What Ways Do Atticus Finch and Robert Ewell Differ and What Do They Have in Common Essay

Atticus Finch and Robert Ewell are two very different characters, but are similar in some ways. They both live in Maycomb, Alabama, but are respected differently in their communities as Atticus is seen as a brave and courageous man, while Robert Ewell is seen as a drunken coward. Atticus ‘lives on the main residential street in town’, and Robert Ewell lives in ‘what was once a negro cabin’, but it is falling apart. The cabin’s plank walls were supplemented with sheets of corrugated iron, its roof shingled with tin cans hammered flat, so only its general shape suggested its original design: square, with four tiny rooms opening on to a shotgun hall uneasily upon four irregular lumps of limestone. ’ The Ewell’s scavenge a lot in the county dump they live behind to find bits and pieces for their house. Atticus Finch is a lawyer and has fought many battles in the court room, and has mostly won them. He is one of a handful of members in his community who can see the inequality and racism towards black people. Robert Ewell doesn’t have a job, and ‘lives off county cheques, but spends them on green bottle whisky’. He doesn’t even make an effort to try and provide for his family, and is also prejudice and racist. The men’s jobs, or lack of them, reflect their social status in Maycomb. The Ewell’s have lived and behaved in this manner for generations, while the Finches have been successful. Both the men have lost their wives, so have single-handedly raised their children. Atticus sets a good example, and ‘plays with them, reads to them and treats them with courteous detachment’. Atticus also has a maid called Calpurnia, who ‘treats the children like she’s their mother, not their maid’, unlike other maids who favour and are never strict with children. She has been with the family since Jeremy was born. His children are always well kept and polite, and have many friends at school. In contrast, Robert Ewell’s children are dirty, rude and ‘disease ridden’. They all attend school on the first day of every term, but always get sent home for having lice, or being extremely rude to the teacher and fellow classmates. Robert Ewell neglects his children, and it has now become clear that he abuses them, when it is proven that Tom Robinson didn’t harm Mayella Ewell. ‘Nobody is ever sure how many children there are, as there are always several dirty children’s faces peering out the window’. By Harper Lee describing how poor and unfortunate the children are, where they live, and how they behave, shows how neglected they are by their father and the community, and how poverty can seriously affect a family. When the case is first spoken about, people automatically favour Mayella Ewell, due to racism and prejudice, and are rude to Atticus for representing Tom Robinson. He gets called many names such as ‘nigger-lover’, and his children also get a hard time at school, but Atticus continues to defend Tom and ignores the rude remarks and names. By doing so, he still gets basic respect from the people of Maycomb, and still presents himself in a courteous manner. In the trials, he is fair to every person he defends, and always tries his best to make the jury believe that they are not guilty. He also abides by the law, making sure his children attend school; he’s not racist and wanting Jem to speak about the incident where Robert Ewell is murdered, in court. Meanwhile, Robert Ewell is a law breaker, and gets away with it. He lets his children truant from school, and goes out hunting, even though it is illegal in Maycomb. He lies a lot too, like in court he makes up which side Mayella was beat up on, and denies doing it himself. His language in the courtroom is also very bad, as he uses slang and behaves in an uncourteous manner, and his appearance is scruffy, and he doesn’t make an effort to be smart. On the other hand, Atticus looks smart and speaks properly, making sure what he says is true and says it in a clever way, so it means one thing, but implies something else. This is how he proves Tom Robinsons innocence to the spectators, even though the jury think he’s guilty. At the end of the book, Atticus decides to break the law on one occasion, and go along with Heck Tate’s version of the event, as he doesn’t want Jem growing up being told he was let off innocent, as his dad’s a lawyer. It was also easier, as Tom Robinson was dead for no reason, because of Robert Ewell, so it was fair to ‘let the dead bury the dead’. With Atticus being a polite, fair, hardworking and a responsible man, he and Robert Ewell are nothing alike. However, neither fit into their communities perfectly, but none of them are ‘normal’. So, with their being some credible similarities, Robert Ewell is a rude drunk and Atticus is courageous, so therefore Harper Lee has portrayed them to be two different completely characters.

Ibm Financial Analysis - 3513 Words

1. IBM: A Systematic Financial Analysis. 1.1 Introduction In order to make informed investment decisions, potential investors should carefully analyze all available information about the company (or companies) that they are planning to add to their portfolios. One such way is by performing a systematic financial analysis for each of the companies in question (Giroux 2003). The results of this analysis can then be used to determine whether or not the company presents a sound investment opportunity. International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) operates as an information technology (IT) company worldwide. The company has three segments: Systems and Financing, Software, and Services. The Systems and Financing segment†¦show more content†¦2.2 Business Strategy IBM’s business model is built to support two main goals: helping its clients succeed in delivering business value through the use of business insight and information technology, and providing long term value to shareholders. In addition, as part of the effort of driving profits and cash growth over the long, IBM is committed to increase its global client-base. The company’s strategic priorities for 2006 include (IBM Annual Report 2005): †¢ Capitalizing on technological, business and social trends and the need of enterprises to innovate in addressing those trends; †¢ Maintaining market-share leadership in systems, middleware software and services, as a platform to drive growth; †¢ Focusing investment and resources on emerging growth areas, including Business Performance Transformation Services and emerging countries; †¢ Continuing the global integration of IBM, driving productivity gains and higher value in service delivery; †¢ Furthering IBM’s leadership in innovation initiatives, including advanced semiconductor design and development, collaborative intellectual capital, business process expertise and integration, and advanced systems for supercomputing capability – including mainframes and â€Å"grid networks; †¢ Acquiring businesses that contribute strategically to its portfolio, and exiting businesses that no longer supports its strategy for innovation and higher value.Show MoreRelatedFinancial Statement Analysis of Ibm10917 Words   |  44 PagesFinancial Statement Analysis of IBM Financial Statement Analysis of IBM I. 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Blackrobe Movie Review Essay - 1043 Words

‘Black Robe Movie Critique ‘Black Robe is the story of a young Jesuit Priest from France who embarks on a religious journey to convert, to Christianity, the Aboriginal tribes of New France. Set primarily in Ontario during the mid 1630s, Father Lafargue travels from Quebec via the Ottawa River to the home of the Huron people in what is now referred to as the Simcoe Region of South Central Ontario. He is aided by a band of Algonquin-speaking people, numbering roughly 20 and a young Frenchman with aspirations of Priesthood in the motherland. Blackrobe offers an intriguing insight into the relationships between the French and the Aboriginals. That being said most of the background for the movie is taken from a massive archive of†¦show more content†¦The Jesuit Priests saw the Aboriginals as savage and uncultured. not unlike the English or Germans before French influence. During a flashback sequence belonging to the main protagonist Father Lafargue, one can see what the elite of France, to which h e belongs, think about their new colony. According to his mother it is a land of backwards people with dangers around every corner which was certainly not the case. A point of contention between critics is the depiction of the horrible torture scenes which illustrates, one might conceive, the Aboriginals barbarism. In one of the opening scenes, a contingent of French workers joke about the various ways the Aboriginals torture Jesuit Priests and Frenchmen alike, not to mention other rival tribes. An example of this barbarism is illustrated when the survivors of the Iroquois attack go through beating lines to inevitably be tortured by having their fingers removed surgically with mussel shells. Although these actions are barbaric, they are no worse than the atrocities that arguably every ‘civilized nation during the time period committed. This being said, the film seems to make the Iroquois more barbaric than they actually were omitting the fact that they routinely practiced cannibalism. It is interesting to observe the camera work whereby in almost all the scenes the Jesuits occupy higher position than anyone else. This refers to the Jesuits standing over the Aboriginals